Bedside Snapshot
- Recognize
- Pre-arrest: HR <60 with poor perfusion despite oxygen and ventilation
- Arrest: unresponsive, no normal breathing, no pulse
- CPR & Energy
- Rate 100–120/min; depth at least 1/3 AP diameter
- Infant: heel of one hand or two thumbs, never two fingers
- Ratio 15:2 (2 rescuers) or 30:2
- Shock 2 J/kg, then 4 J/kg (max 10 J/kg or adult dose)
- Drugs
- Epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IV/IO (0.1 mL/kg of 0.1 mg/mL), max 1 mg, every 3–5 min
- Shockable: after 2nd shock. Non-shockable: as soon as possible
- After 3rd shock (VF/pVT): amiodarone 5 mg/kg (max 300 mg) or lidocaine 1 mg/kg
- Reversible Causes
- Hypoxia first: confirm tube position with waveform ETCO₂
- Check glucose in every arrest
- Hyperkalemia with ECG changes: calcium chloride 20 mg/kg (max 1 g)
- After ROSC
- SpO₂ 94–99%; avoid hypo- and hypercapnia
- SBP and MAP above the age 10th percentile
- Prevent fever above 37.5 °C
Overview & Pediatric Differences
Most pediatric cardiac arrests end a slow slide. The child's breathing or circulation has been failing for some time. Respiratory failure or shock comes first. Bradycardia follows, then pulseless electrical activity (PEA) or asystole. The arrest is usually hypoxic, which is why the pre-arrest child matters most.
Shockable rhythms (VF or pulseless VT) are uncommon in children. They turn up more often in older children and adolescents with a witnessed collapse. Immediate defibrillation works best on them.
Why Kids Are Different
- Small airway: swelling, secretions or a dislodged tube can go bad fast and drop oxygen quickly.
- High oxygen demand per kg and very little reserve. Hypoxia reaches the heart early.
- Heart rate carries cardiac output. In a child, bradycardia is usually a late sign of hypoxia or shock. It is not primary conduction disease.
- Small blood volume: a modest loss in absolute terms is a big share of what they have.
- Compensation hides shock. Blood pressure often looks fine until the child is close to arresting.
- Limited glycogen stores: hypoglycemia can set in quickly.
Scope: this page is for infants and children. Newborn resuscitation from birth to 28 days is excluded, since it follows the Neonatal Resuscitation Program. Work from the Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) algorithms below, and follow local protocols and medical direction.
Recognition
Do not wait for the rhythm to change before you act on a pre-arrest child. Arrest is confirmed on three findings: unresponsive, not breathing normally (or only gasping), and no pulse.
| Feature | Compensated | Decompensated (pre-arrest) |
|---|---|---|
| Mental status | Anxious, irritable, consolable | Lethargic, confused or unresponsive |
| Heart rate | Tachycardia | Bradycardia: HR <60 with poor perfusion |
| Blood pressure | Normal for age | Hypotension: SBP below the age threshold (see below) |
| Capillary refill | Normal, 2 s or less | Prolonged, more than 2 s |
| Breathing | Increased work, adequate saturation | Gasping, apneic or failing; SpO₂ falling |
Hypotension thresholds (SBP): term neonate <60 mmHg; infant 1–12 months <70 mmHg; age 1–10 years <70 + (2 × age) mmHg; over 10 years <90 mmHg.
- Red flags: gasping or agonal breathing, falling SpO₂ despite oxygen, HR <60 with poor perfusion, mottling, altered mental status.
- Pulse check: cap your search at about 10 seconds. A pulse that will not show up fast is no reason to delay CPR.
Do not wait for the rhythm to flatten: once HR <60 and perfusion is poor, even with oxygen and ventilation running, start CPR. The next assessment can wait.
High-Quality CPR
Every pediatric algorithm rests on high-quality CPR. The 2025 AHA update dropped the two-finger technique for infants. It also limits any pause in compressions to less than 10 seconds.
| Parameter | Target | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Rate | 100–120/min | Allow full chest recoil between compressions |
| Depth | At least one-third of AP diameter (infant about 4 cm / 1.5 in; child about 5 cm / 2 in) | Adolescent depth per adult standard, 5–6 cm |
| Interruptions | Any pause under 10 s | Includes rhythm checks and shock delivery |
| Infant technique | Heel of one hand, or two-thumb encircling hands | Two-finger technique is no longer recommended |
| Child technique | One or two hands on lower half of sternum | Same depth and rate targets |
| Ratio, no advanced airway | 15:2 (two rescuers, prepuberty); 30:2 (one rescuer, or after puberty) | Change compressor every 2 min or sooner if tired |
| Ratio, advanced airway | Continuous compressions; 1 breath every 2–3 s (about 20–30/min) | Avoid hyperventilation |
| Defibrillation | Apply the AED immediately | Use a pediatric attenuator or pads when available |
- ETCO₂ as a quality signal: ETCO₂ may be considered to judge CPR quality (2025 AHA Part 8: 2b, B-NR). A sudden rise may signal ROSC. No single ETCO₂ cutoff should end resuscitation (2025 AHA Part 8: 3: Harm, C-LD).
- Arterial pressure (if invasive monitoring is in place): aim for a diastolic pressure of at least 25 mmHg in infants and at least 30 mmHg in children older than 1 year (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8: 2b, C-LD).
Algorithm: Shockable Rhythms (VF/pVT)
This pathway is for VF or pulseless VT. Once you identify the rhythm, defibrillate. Then resume CPR at once.
- Start high-quality CPR and apply the AED or monitor-defibrillator, with pediatric pads or attenuator when available.
- Shock 1: 2 J/kg. Resume CPR immediately for 2 minutes.
- Rhythm check: if VF or pulseless VT persists, Shock 2: 4 J/kg. Resume CPR immediately.
- Epinephrine: 0.01 mg/kg (0.1 mL/kg of 0.1 mg/mL) IV/IO after the second shock (or sooner only if rapid defibrillation is not possible); max 1 mg; repeat every 3–5 min (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, rec 2 and 3: 2b, C-LD).
- CPR for 2 minutes, then rhythm check. Shock 3 and later: at least 4 J/kg, up to a maximum of 10 J/kg or the adult dose (2025 AHA PALS algorithm).
- Shock-refractory VF or pulseless VT, after the third shock: amiodarone 5 mg/kg IV/IO (max 300 mg; repeat doses max 150 mg each, up to 3 repeat doses), or lidocaine 1 mg/kg IV/IO (no pediatric maximum stated). Either may be considered (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, rec 4: 2b, C-LD).
- Treat reversible causes (H's and T's) during every cycle.
- If the rhythm becomes PEA or asystole, switch to the non-shockable algorithm.
Epinephrine timing: the 2025 AHA PALS algorithm gives the first dose after the second shock. A 2026 review (reference 3) says the 2025 ERC algorithm gives it after the third shock. The ERC text was not reachable. That comparison is unverified. Follow your local protocol.
Energy escalation: shock one is 2 J/kg. Every shock after that is at least 4 J/kg, up to 10 J/kg or the adult dose. Never exceed the adult maximum setting on the defibrillator.
Algorithm: Non-Shockable Rhythms (PEA/Asystole)
Most pediatric arrests are PEA or asystole. Your treatments are CPR and epinephrine. Defibrillation has no role. Dig for the cause.
- Start CPR with effective ventilation. Hypoxia is the usual cause.
- Epinephrine as early as possible: 0.01 mg/kg (0.1 mL/kg of 0.1 mg/mL) IV/IO as soon as access is available; max 1 mg (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, rec 1: 2a, C-LD).
- CPR for 2 minutes, then rhythm check.
- Repeat epinephrine every 3–5 min while CPR continues.
- Search for and correct reversible causes (H's and T's) as they are identified.
- If VF or pulseless VT appears, switch to the shockable algorithm.
Do not wait for the 2-minute cycle: with IV or IO access already in place, give epinephrine now. In non-shockable rhythms, earlier epinephrine is associated with better ROSC and survival.
Reversible Causes
In pediatric arrest, finding the cause is the most important thinking you will do. Many causes can be reversed. The one to chase first is usually hypoxia.
| Cause | Pediatric Clues | Intervention |
|---|---|---|
| H: Hypoxia | #1 cause; respiratory failure precedes arrest | Oxygenate and ventilate; confirm tube position with waveform ETCO₂; check breath sounds |
| H: Hypovolemia | Hemorrhage, dehydration, sepsis; children compensate, then crash | Isotonic crystalloid 10–20 mL/kg per bolus (balanced preferred), reassess after each; stop for fluid overload; early blood products for hemorrhage |
| H: Hydrogen ion (acidosis) | DKA, poisoning, prolonged arrest | Correct ventilation first; sodium bicarbonate only for specific indications (see Medications & Dosing) |
| H: Hyperkalemia | Renal failure, DKA, tumor lysis, crush injury | With ECG changes: calcium chloride 20 mg/kg IV/IO (max 1 g, slowly over 5 min) and sodium bicarbonate 1 mEq/kg IV (max 50 mEq) (NASEMSO v3.0, Cardiac Arrest p. 119: 20 mg/kg = 0.2 mL/kg, bicarbonate 1 mEq/kg; Crush Injury pp. 222-223: max 1 g over 5 min, bicarbonate max 50 mEq); insulin 0.1 units/kg IV over 15–30 min (max 10 units) with D10W 5 mL/kg (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 10, Table 3). AHA 2025 rates calcium, bicarbonate and insulin-glucose as not well established (2b), and does not recommend inhaled albuterol in hyperkalemic arrest (3: No Benefit, C-EO). Hypokalemia is a cause to correct per protocol with specialist input |
| H: Hypothermia | Submersion, environmental exposure, neonates | Active rewarming; continue resuscitation until the child is warm. In severe hypothermia, drug and shock timing differs: follow the hypothermic-arrest protocol. ECLS rewarming if available |
| H: Hypoglycemia | Neonates, diabetics, sepsis, small glycogen stores | Check glucose in every arrest; dextrose 0.5–1 g/kg (see Medications & Dosing) |
| T: Tension pneumothorax | Trauma, asthma, positive-pressure ventilation | Needle decompression, then chest tube; absent breath sounds, tracheal shift |
| T: Tamponade (cardiac) | Trauma, post-cardiac surgery, malignancy | Pericardiocentesis or surgical drainage per team; muffled heart sounds, JVD, hypotension |
| T: Toxins | Accidental ingestion (common in toddlers); intentional in adolescents | Specific antidote with toxicology input; sodium bicarbonate for TCA or sodium-channel blocker toxicity; magnesium for torsades |
| T: Thrombosis (pulmonary or coronary) | Central lines, immobility, hypercoagulable states; coronary causes are rare in children | Pulmonary embolism: fibrinolysis considered with specialist input per protocol; coronary: cardiology |
| T: Trauma | Blunt or penetrating injury, hemorrhage | Hemorrhage control, early blood products, trauma center transport |
Think respiratory first: use waveform capnography to confirm the tube is in place. Check that breath sounds are bilateral. Then ventilate with 100% oxygen before anything else.
Medications & Dosing
Resuscitation and Related Drugs
| Drug | Dose & Route | Max | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Epinephrine High-alert |
0.01 mg/kg IV/IO = 0.1 mL/kg of 0.1 mg/mL (formerly 1:10,000) |
1 mg per dose (adult dose) |
Every 3–5 min. Non-shockable: as soon as possible. Shockable: after second shock, or sooner only if rapid defibrillation is not possible (2025 AHA Part 8, recs 1–3). IV or IO is preferred over endotracheal; endotracheal absorption is unreliable, and the 2025 PALS algorithm gives no endotracheal dose for children |
| Amiodarone High-alert |
5 mg/kg IV/IO = 0.1 mL/kg of 50 mg/mL |
300 mg first dose; repeat doses max 150 mg each, up to 3 repeat doses |
Shock-refractory VF or pulseless VT, after the third shock (2025 AHA PALS algorithm). Not the treatment for torsades. Differs from FDA label: pediatric use not established |
| Lidocaine High-alert |
1 mg/kg IV/IO = 0.05 mL/kg of 20 mg/mL |
No pediatric max stated |
Alternative to amiodarone for shock-refractory VF or pulseless VT (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, rec 4); repeat per protocol |
| Magnesium sulfate High-alert |
25–50 mg/kg IV/IO |
2 g per dose |
Torsades de pointes, regardless of cause. Pulseless torsades is pulseless VT: defibrillate per the shockable algorithm; magnesium is an adjunct, not a substitute for shock. With a pulse, infuse slowly (DailyMed labeling for magnesium sulfate in water: IV rate generally not above 150 mg/min); watch for hypotension and cardiac depression with rapid push |
| Atropine | 0.02 mg/kg IV/IO; may repeat once |
0.5 mg per dose; minimum 0.1 mg |
Not an arrest drug. In bradycardia with a pulse and poor perfusion, the 2025 PALS bradycardia algorithm starts CPR and epinephrine if HR is under 60; atropine is for increased vagal tone or primary AV block (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, PALS bradycardia algorithm) |
Electrolytes and Dextrose
| Drug | Dose & Route | Max | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Calcium chloride 10% | 20 mg/kg IV/IO slow push = 0.2 mL/kg of 100 mg/mL |
1 g per dose |
Hyperkalemia with ECG changes, hypocalcemia, calcium-channel blocker overdose. Central or large vein preferred. Never IM. Routine use in arrest is not recommended (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8, rec 6: 3: No Benefit, B-NR). Differs from FDA label: the US label lists only hypocalcemia (pediatric 2.7–5 mg/kg) and caps the rate at 1 mL/min via a central or deep vein. The 20 mg/kg hyperkalemia dose and the push over about 5 minutes are NASEMSO v3.0 values (Cardiac Arrest p. 119; Crush Injury pp. 222-223) and are off-label. |
| Sodium bicarbonate 8.4% | 1 mEq/kg IV/IO slowly = 1 mL/kg of 1 mEq/mL |
50 mEq per dose (adult dose) |
Not routine in pediatric arrest (2025 AHA Part 8, rec 5: 3: No Benefit, B-NR). Reserve for hyperkalemia or sodium-channel blocker toxicity (NASEMSO v3.0, Cardiac Arrest p. 119; max 50 mEq per Crush Injury pp. 222-223). 4.2% in infants under about 3 months (0.5 mEq/mL): 2 mL/kg for 1 mEq/kg |
| Dextrose | 0.5–1 g/kg IV/IO = 5–10 mL/kg of D10W |
Single dose 25 g (adult dose) |
Check glucose in every arrest. D10W is preferred at every age. Avoid D50 under 8 years (NASEMSO v3.0). D25 2–4 mL/kg only in children over 8 years. The D25 infant syringe (1–2 mL/kg) is central-vein only and is given per NICU protocol. |
Epinephrine concentration: IV/IO dosing uses 0.1 mg/mL. The 1 mg/mL product is meant for IM use (for example anaphylaxis), not for arrest dosing given IV/IO. One mistaken IV push of 1 mg/mL is a tenfold overdose, with risk of lethal hypertension and arrhythmia. Check the label before every dose.
Dosing draws on two sources, in this order. The 2025 AHA PALS algorithms come first. For any dose they leave unstated, use NASEMSO National Model EMS Clinical Guidelines v3.0, published March 2022. With three or more high-alert drugs on this page, every mg, mL and concentration needs a second clinician's check.
Post-Resuscitation Care
ROSC (return of spontaneous circulation) starts the post-cardiac arrest phase. The heart may still be dysfunctional, reperfused tissue can injure itself, and the original cause may not be gone. The targets below come from the 2025 AHA pediatric update.
| Parameter | Target | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Oxygenation | SpO₂ 94–99% | Titrate FiO₂ down; avoid sustained hyperoxia (2025 AHA Part 8: may be reasonable, 2b, C-LD) |
| Ventilation | Individualized; avoid both hypo- and hypercapnia (2025 AHA Part 8, 2b, C-LD) | Reduce the rate to age-appropriate levels. The 35–45 mmHg range is the adult target (2025 AHA Part 11, COR 1); Part 8 gives no numeric pediatric PaCO₂ target |
| Blood pressure | SBP and MAP greater than the 10th percentile for age and sex (2025 AHA Part 8, COR 1, LOE B-NR) | Continuous arterial monitoring when available; use fluid and vasoactive support to reach target |
| Temperature | Prevent fever; core temperature at or below 37.5 °C | For comatose children, avoiding central temperature above 37.5 °C is recommended (2025 AHA Part 8, COR 1, LOE B-NR); structured temperature control per protocol |
| Glucose | Within normal range | Treat hypoglycemia; avoid hyperglycemia |
| Seizures | Treat clinical seizures promptly | Continuous EEG when available |
Age-Specific Blood Pressure Targets
Per the 2025 AHA Part 8, the goal is systolic and mean arterial pressure greater than the 10th percentile for age and sex (COR 1, LOE B-NR). In that guidance, post-arrest hypotension means systolic pressure below the 5th percentile. No per-age figures appear in the text, so lean on your age-based reference table or protocol.
- Labs: ABG or VBG, lactate, electrolytes (including potassium and calcium), and glucose.
- Persistent hypotension: once a fluid bolus is in, reach for epinephrine, dopamine or norepinephrine per protocol. For more, see Pediatric Shock.
- Neurologic prognostication: do not use absent pupillary light reflexes or a GCS in the first 24 hours to predict an unfavorable outcome (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8: 3: No Benefit, B-NR). Present bilateral pupillary reflexes within 12 hours may support a favorable prognosis when read with other criteria (2b, C-LD). Absent bilateral reflexes at 48–72 hours may support an unfavorable prognosis, again with other criteria (2b, C-LD). Motor response, GCS, cough or gag are not well established as prognostic tools. Run several assessments over time, since a single test is unreliable.
- Disposition: pediatric ICU. Send to a center with extracorporeal life support when one is available.
Pitfalls & Safety Checks
| Pitfall | Consequence | Prevention |
|---|---|---|
| Two-finger compressions in infants | Inadequate depth and poor perfusion | Heel of one hand, or two-thumb encircling hands |
| 1 mg/mL epinephrine given IV | Lethal hypertension, arrhythmia, ischemia | Verify 0.1 mg/mL before every IV/IO dose; use cardiac-labeled syringes |
| Wrong weight (lb for kg or guessed weight) | Overdose or underdose of every drug | Measured weight, or length-based estimate in kg; see Weight-Based Dosing |
| Routine sodium bicarbonate | Transient CO₂ rise and worsened respiratory acidosis; lower survival in observational data, confounded by resuscitation time (2025 AHA Part 8) | Use only for specific indications and after ventilation is secured |
| Amiodarone or lidocaine for torsades | Amiodarone further prolongs QT | Magnesium sulfate 25–50 mg/kg IV, max 2 g |
| Stopping CPR on one ETCO₂ value | Premature termination of resuscitation | Use ETCO₂ with the whole clinical picture; no single threshold decides termination |
| Pauses over 10 s | Lower coronary and cerebral perfusion | Keep pauses under 10 s, including for shocks and rhythm checks |
| Hyperoxia or hyperventilation after ROSC | Oxidative and cerebral injury | SpO₂ 94–99%; avoid hypocapnia and hypercapnia |
Most catastrophic error: giving 1 mg/mL epinephrine IV. Before you push, read the label, do the math (0.1 mL/kg of 0.1 mg/mL), and have a second clinician check the dose.
Special Populations
Neonates (birth to 28 days)
- Not covered here. Newborn resuscitation follows the Neonatal Resuscitation Program. The 2025 PALS algorithms leave newborns out.
Infants
- Stick with the heel-of-one-hand or two-thumb technique. With an advanced airway, deliver one breath every 2–3 seconds, about 20–30/min (2025 AHA PALS algorithm). The Korean (KACPR) expert suggestion of about 30/min for infants under 1 year is not a graded recommendation.
- Weight-based doses match those for children. Neonates, who are excluded from this page, use NRP dosing.
Adolescents
- NASEMSO counts a patient as pediatric up to 40 kg or up to 14 years, whichever comes first (Universal Care p. 13). Over 40 kg or over 14 years, the patient gets adult drug doses (NASEMSO Universal Care p. 13). The adult dose also caps shock energy (see Shockable Rhythms). Adolescents who have gone through puberty get adult compression depth. The 2025 AHA PALS algorithm uses 30:2 for two rescuers after puberty.
Children With Special Health Care Needs
- Look for an Emergency Information Form. Tracheostomy: carry a spare tube of the same size and one size smaller.
- Ventriculoperitoneal shunt, gastrostomy tube and central venous line: identify each one and report it at handoff. A central line is the preferred route for calcium chloride.
- Home ventilator dependence: ventilate per the device, using the child's own settings when they are known.
Congenital Heart Disease
- Bring in pediatric cardiology early. In single-ventricle or complex physiology, the cardiac team shapes both the arrest decision and the drug choice.
Suspected Maltreatment
- Resuscitation comes first. Document injuries and history carefully. Follow local reporting protocols.
Prehospital & Transport Considerations
| Level | Typical Role in This Topic |
|---|---|
| EMT | High-quality CPR, AED with pediatric pads or attenuator, oxygen and bag-mask ventilation |
| AEMT | IV or IO access and selected drugs per state and agency protocol |
| Paramedic | Advanced airway, epinephrine, antiarrhythmics and defibrillation per protocol |
| RN (ED/ICU) | Full PALS resuscitation, post-ROSC targets and drug titration |
| Critical Care Transport | Ventilator, infusions and post-ROSC targets during transport, per program protocol |
- Preparation: have epinephrine at 0.1 mg/mL drawn up or color-coded, with the volume for 0.01 mg/kg written on the syringe. Use the length-based tape or a measured weight.
- Destination: a pediatric-capable emergency department, a PICU or a center with extracorporeal life support. For in-hospital arrest that does not respond to conventional CPR, ECPR may be considered in selected patients where ECPR protocols exist (2025 AHA Guidelines for CPR and ECC, Part 8: 2b, C-LD).
- Restraint: use a size-appropriate restraint on the stretcher. Never let a child ride on a caregiver's lap during transport.
- Heat loss: infants lose heat fast. Cover the head and keep the room warm.
- CCT ventilator: tidal volume 6–8 mL/kg, rate by age, PEEP 5; secure the endotracheal tube before moving.
- Handoff: give a structured handoff such as IMIST-AMBO or MIST. Include the epinephrine doses given and when.
Clinical Pearls
Compressions are the treatment that matters most: adequate depth, rate and full recoil decide whether drugs have a chance. Keep pauses under 10 seconds. Excellent CPR can produce ROSC without drugs. Poor CPR fails even with the right drugs.
ETCO₂ is a quality signal, not a stop signal: the waveform tells you about compression quality and ROSC. One ETCO₂ value is not a reason to end resuscitation.
Know your epinephrine timing: under the 2025 AHA algorithm, the first shockable-rhythm dose comes after the second shock. Confirm which algorithm your service and ED use, and run that one consistently.
Post-ROSC autopilot is the most dangerous phase: the adrenaline drains away and the team loosens up. Hyperoxia, hyperventilation, hypotension and fever can undo good CPR. Name one owner for the post-ROSC targets.
Assign roles before the arrest: leader, compressor, airway, access and drugs, monitor and defibrillator, recorder. Closed-loop communication means every order gets confirmed. The leader directs rather than performs procedures.
References
- American Heart Association and American Academy of Pediatrics. Part 8: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2025 American Heart Association and American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2025;152(16_suppl_2):S479-S537. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001368
- American Heart Association and American Academy of Pediatrics. Part 6: Pediatric Basic Life Support: 2025 American Heart Association and American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2025;152(16_suppl_2):S424-S447. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001370
- Lee JE, Kim M, Choi EK, et al. Updated pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a comprehensive review of the 2025 guidelines. Anesth Pain Med (Seoul). 2026;21(2):150-161. https://doi.org/10.17085/apm.26581
- 2025 Korean Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: Part 8. Pediatric advanced life support. Clin Exp Emerg Med. 2026;13:S115-S141. https://doi.org/10.15441/ceem.26.103
- American Heart Association and American Academy of Pediatrics. 2025 AHA Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, Part 10: Adult and Pediatric Special Circumstances of Resuscitation. https://cpr.heart.org/en/resuscitation-science/cpr-and-ecc-guidelines/adult-and-pediatric-special-circumstances-of-resuscitation
- National Association of State EMS Officials. National Model EMS Clinical Guidelines, Version 3.0 (March 2022). https://nasemso.org/docs.ashx?id=1444322
Medical Disclaimer
- For Educational Purposes Only: This content is intended for educational reference and should not be used for clinical decision-making.
- Not a Substitute for Professional Judgment: Always consult your local protocols, institutional guidelines, and supervising physicians.
- Verify Before Acting: Users are responsible for verifying information through authoritative sources before any clinical application.
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